OTD: January 2nd

On this day, January 2, in...

... 1871, Maria Antonina Misseri was born in Montelepre, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

... 1887, Filippo Misseri was born in Monreale, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

OTD: January 3rd

On this day, January 3, in...

... 1838, Donna Benedetta Misseri was born in Montelepre, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

... 1841, Filippa Misseri was born in the Palermo area of Zisa, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

... 1848, Concetta Misseri was born in the Palermo area of Santa Ninfa, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

OTD: January 1st

Happy New Year!

I am trying something new this year and maybe it will turn out to be a way of connecting with distant cousins. I am going to try to add a new post each day that I will call "On this day..." and it will include people that were born, married or died on that specific date. So, without further ado, here is the first entry.

On this day, January 1, in...

... 1663, Giacomo Lo Misseri was born in Carini, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

... 1880, Giuseppa Misseri was born in the Palermo area of Zisa, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

... 1892, Francesco Misseri was born in the Palermo area of Uditore, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

... 1892, Cesare Misseri was born in Carini, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

... 1895, Pietro Misseri was born in Palermo, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

A Truck Driver, the 'Black Hand' and a Murder in Cleveland, Ohio

This is a rather dark story about an immigrant who was trying his best to better himself and his family, but he ended up as a homicide victim killed by the 'Black Hand' in Cleveland, Ohio.

The year, 1920. The place, Cleveland. The person, Francesco Misseri / Messeri (aka Frank Massario or Frank Messario, or even Frank Messaria). (Throughout the rest of this article, Francesco's Americanized name, Frank, will be used, which was the name he went by during his life in Ohio).

Just to give you a little background history, for those that don't know, the ‘Black Hand’ was an Italian criminal group that usually committed extortion crimes, demanding money in exchange for safety from bodily harm or personal property. To make matters worse, the 'Black Hand' usually perpetrated their crimes against other Italians.

Now back to our story. Born on 19 May 1879 (his parents were Cesare Misseri and Domenica di Lisi) in Carini, Italy, Frank immigrated to the United States seeking a different but hopefully a better life for himself, like so many other Italians. The actual year when Frank came to the United States is unknown. (Several family members have searched high and low for the ship manifest document showing when he arrived in the United States.) Frank's wife, Vincenza (known as Jennie or Jeannie in the U.S.) Giovanna Catalano, and their young son, Cesare (known as Jerry in the U.S.), immigrated to Cleveland in February 1915. Jennie was born on 14 Nov 1875 in Montelepre, Palermo, Sicily, Italy & Jerry was born on 18 Jun 1907 in Carini, Palermo, Sicily, Italy. A family photo of Frank and his son, (along with a woman) was taken in Cleveland in late 1915 or 1916 so that confirms the whole family was in Cleveland around that time.

Frank was a truck driver, making deliveries in and around the Cleveland area. A descendent of Frank says he worked delivering products to and from the West Side Market just west of downtown Cleveland. Frank owned his own truck, so he was making his own destiny in the new world he immigrated to just a few years earlier. Assuming Frank knew very little English, he was learning the new language "on the job" and one of the first order of things he needed to learn were the street names and addresses so he could make his deliveries. His cargo were fruits and vegetables, along with meats and cheeses all picked up from the West Side Market from the various vendors.

Frank must have been making a name for himself because he obviously caught the attention of some 'not-so-good' individuals because on his 41st birthday, on 19 May 1920, he was shot when he was passing through the intersection of East 9th Street and Decatur Court S.E. (Webster Avenue S.E. and Decatur Court S.E. were in the area just south of Progressive Field [home of the Cleveland Guardians baseball team], where I-90 was built with entrance and exit ramps to access Ontario and East 9th Streets from I-90).

Sanborn Map of Cleveland, Ohio

At least two men jumped out and fired pistols hitting Frank in shoulder, arm and ankle (a later articles says he was hit in the head too). Frank spent time recovering at Huron Road Hospital from his injuries. This was a pretty serious event and the Cleveland Police Department got involved, but when questioned about the shooting, Frank was very reluctant naming the individuals who shot him. It's not clear whether the two people were actually trying to kill him or if the event was to scare him so that they could extort money (or extra money) from him. Obviously, there was something going on with the men before the shooting and if seems like Frank definitely knew who the individuals who injured him during the assault. Looking back on all the events that unfolded in the months to come, maybe Frank should have named the individuals that first shot and wounded him on his birthday.

May 20, 1920, page 21 - The Cleveland Press at Newspapers.com

The following article is from the Cleveland Hungarian newspaper, America, that re-ran the article that first appeared in The Cleveland Press on May 20, 1920 (see above). Unfortunately, the article in at the very bottom of the left column and continues to the top of the right column. The second article is from a Cleveland Czech newspaper, called SveÌŒt (meaning the "World") from 28 July 1920 after the murder. The Czechs and Hungarians were probably a little concerned for their safety, since they were a minority like the Italians in Cleveland.

May 21, 1920, page 2 - America at Newspapers.com

Jul 28, 1920, page 4 - SveÌŒt = World at Newspapers.com™

After looking at and reading the different newspaper articles surrounding Frank's killing, what struck a chord was the type of 'journalism' that was in place during the 1920s. As it has been more than a hundred years after the news coverage of the murder, historians have labeled the style of newspaper reporting during that time period as "1920's Jazz Journalism." During the 1920s, journalism changed because The Great War had ended and things weren't so sober anymore across the world. The newspapers started to push the limits of their reporting and spiced their stories up by making the news gossipier and more sensational (much like social media of today). Some of the key characteristics of the 1920's Jazz Journalism were sensationalism (murder stories to attract attention, like "BLACK HAND BUSY"), tabloid format (small, easy-to-quickly read sized stories with big photos and huge headlines for newsstand sales), entertainment type of stories (celebrities, sports, and crime replaced more serious news stories) and provocative language (headlines were written to make a quick impact and entice the reader, like the article below "BLACK HAND KILLS MAN IN SECOND TRIAL"). When re-reading the news articles, the stories about Frank's death definitely fit right into journalism of the time period.

About two months after the initial attack on 19 May 1920. Frank appears in the Cleveland newspapers again, but this time, the story turns even darker. The news story reports Frank (they really butchered his last in the newspaper as "Messario," "Massario," or "Messaria" instead of "Messeri") has been murdered by four individuals just outside his home at 1245 Webster Avenue in Cleveland on 26 July 1920 just after 8 o'clock in the evening.

Sanborn Map of Cleveland, Ohio

The four assailants chased Frank from in front of his home through the neighborhood firing 30 shots at him while killing him in front of his wife. Jennie witnessed the last four rounds being fired from one of the men as her husband fell to the ground and died. Neither Frank nor Jennie were armed during the shooting, and it was definitely a planned hit. One can only image how traumatic it must have been for Frank's wife to witness the entire event that unfolded on that summer evening. The Cleveland police immediately suspected the 'Black Hand' was the cause of Frank's death

The following articles are a collection from different newspaper across the region documenting the murder. The articles were researched from the Newspapers.com website.

Jul 27, 1920, page 1 - The Plain Dealer at Newspapers.com™

Jul 27, 1920, page 1 - The Cleveland Press at Newspapers.com™

Jul 27, 1920, page 7 - The Cleveland Press at Newspapers.com™

In the article about his death, Frank mentions that he knew who the assailants were in the first shooting. The following newspaper articles lays out the full story of Frank telling his only child, Jerry, who the men were that shot at him the first time. Frank sounds like he was scared for his life but was extremely smart by having his son write down the names of the 'Black Hand' members. Research has shown Frank could not read or write in English, so, he entrusted his English schooled 13-year-old son to take care of business in case something more sinister happened to him. The slip of paper with the names of assailants stayed safe and were tucked behind the family's crucifix on the wall in the living room. When the Cleveland Police came to investigate the killing, the names were given to the police, and the individuals were questioned about Frank's murder. The police were quoted in one newspaper article that "it was an open and shut case." 

Jul 28, 1920, page 6 - The Winchester Sun at Newspapers.com™

Jul 27, 1920, page 1 - The Piqua Daily Call at Newspapers.com™

Jul 27, 1920, page 2 - The Marion Star at Newspapers.com™

Once again, this story about 'Black Hand' murder in Cleveland gets uglier. The killers were never arrested for Frank Messeri's death, and the case was never solved by the Cleveland Police Department. While researching this story, a public records request was submitted to through the official channel of the City of Cleveland to see what police records and files they had since the case was never solved. After a few weeks of waiting on 29 Oct 2025, the official response from the 'Cleveland Public Records Center' was "The City has reviewed its files and has determined there are no records that are responsive to your request."

Jul 28, 1920, page 1 - The Plain Dealer at Newspapers.com™

The story surrounding Frank's death continued to find space in newspapers around Ohio about after two week or so after the first reports appeared in Cleveland. The articles were much less detailed, but they continued to use the word "vengeance" as part of the story, again, it was part of the 1920's Jazz Journalism to shock the readers!

Aug 05, 1920, page 6 - Tri-State Alliance at Newspapers.com™ 

About a year after the killing of Frank, he was included in an article about the unsolved murders from 1920 and the first half of 1921 in Cleveland. This story re-enforces that the crime was never solved by the Cleveland Police department, which is so surprising given the fact that the police had all four names of the assailants and multiple witnesses, including Frank's wife who saw everything that happened on that fateful night. It's great that this time the newspaper finally got the spelling of his name correct. Frank is mentioned about halfway down in the article.

Mar 04, 1921, page 4 - The Cleveland Press at Newspapers.com

So, the story of Frank Messeri seems to end after the four individuals were released and not charged with his murder, but like so many tragic stories, that 13-year-old son, Jerry, who had to write down the names of his father's killers, went on and had a productive life in the Cleveland area. Jerry had children of his own and those children had more kids. Frank's son, who had to grow up quickly after the death of his father, worked in Cleveland at the 'Cleveland Tank Plant' during World War II. The 'Cleveland Tank Plant' was a massive war production facility making B-29 bomber parts for the Allied Forces and then, after World War II, the factory facility shifted gears and made M41 Walker Bulldog tanks for the Korean War. Jerry mostly liked work on the assembly line, because after the war, he went on and worked at a General Motors factory in Cleveland. According to the 1950 U.S. Census, Jerry was an arc welder. Each set of offspring doing a little better than their parents and each generation living the 'America Dream' that all started with a man born just outside of Palermo, Sicily, in the small town of Carini. Despite Frank Messeri being gunned down outside his home by the ‘Black Hand’ at the age of 41, his hard work paid off for generations to come.

NOTE: Much thanks need to be given to Joanne Messeri, for originally sharing this story with me and being the fact checker / gatekeeper of details regarding this family story. Joanne shared some great insight when reviewing the article. Thank you for everything!

Three Messeri Brothers from Palermo Sent to Prison Four Years After the Crime

While searching for various people in the United States with the surname of MISSERI / MESSERI, I came across an interesting newspaper article about three Messeri brothers who murdered a man in Palermo back in 1912. Alessandro Geraci was killed because he was known as a valiant sorcerer and he also performed witchcraft. Ignazio Messeri had been "suffering from an illness that tormented him from morning to night, that did not give him a moment's rest and that did not allow him to sleep." The three Messeri brothers felt they had been tricked out of large sums of money wanted revenge because Ignazio had not been cured of his ailments.

Below is the article translated Italian to English.

The article appeared in La Voce Del Popolo newspaper on 12 Aug 1916, page 6.

CRIME DISCOVERED AFTER FOUR YEARS

PALERMO, 3. On the night of September 18th to 19th 1912, in the Morte courtyard, in the Cardillo district, in Tommaso Natale, a certain Alessandro Geraci, of unknown origin, aged 53, known as "Erasmo fimminilla," from Capaci, was found murdered in his home.

The unfortunate man, who was naked, had been killed by stabbing and cutting.

The investigations carried out immediately by the deputy Regato Puleo of the Resuttana delegation concluded that it was a homicide with the intent of theft, so the cause had to be sought elsewhere.

Alessandro Geraci was known as "a fiaminella" because he had feminine movements and attitudes and even his voice resembled that of a woman. In the suburbs and in the city, he was known as a valiant sorcerer, because in addition to divining the truth, he also performed witchcraft. He was often called upon to cure the insane who had spirits in their bodies. With his exercises, he brought about healing, that is, he defeated the evil spirit that the sick person had in his body. It was not uncommon, however, for the sufferer to succumb, and the catastrophe was explained by the fact that the evil spirit was stronger than the practitioner. Either way, Geraci managed to earn money the fooling others. But on September 18, 1912, there were much more powerful devils than him who sent him to the other world. "A fimminella," this time he could not save himself from the wrath of his cats, and he lost his skin. The police investigation stopped.

They investigated the possible victims of Geraci's occult sciences, certain that in this way they could obtain the key to the mysterious event; but no evidence could be immediately gathered to be able to pinpoint the culprit or culprits.

About four years after the crime had occurred, Commission Cavallo, the police commissioner of Palermo, was told that the perpetrators were to be found in the Messeri family, and that Geraci's killers had been the brothers Angelo, Giovanni and Ignazio.

Skillful investigations were then carried out, entrusted to Commissioner Pastore, and more than sufficient evidence was gathered to be able to make a detailed report to the judicial authorities. This report led to the issuing of arrest warrants against the three brothers and their arrest, which took place last night.

An exorcised sick person

It was learned that one of the three brothers, Ignazio, was suffering from an illness that tormented him from morning to night, that did not give him a moment's rest and that did not allow him to sleep. He had consulted many doctors; he had resorted to pharmacists and herbalists; but no one knew how to find a remedy to free him from that illness. One of his brothers, Giovanni, who was a friend of the "little girl," and he spoke to him about it, and he suggested visiting the poor patient. "There's no doubt about it, since no doctor knows the disease, it must certainly come from some unknown, mysterious cause that needs to be traced," Geraci immediately replied when he was asked about the case. So a preliminary session was arranged ​​to examine the patient. Geraci went, examined, and felt every inch of the patient, and then, bowing his head, stared at him at the ground for a long time, muttering unintelligible words.

All the bystanders and the poor patient began to contemplate the possessed man as a superior being. Suddenly he rose up and, shaking the poor patient who was almost asleep from the suffering, he exclaimed: "Don't be afraid, don't be afraid. Mine is more powerful than the one you have in your body. In three or four sessions, yours will be defeated and will flee from your body." Everyone was satisfied with the response and waited for Geraci to arrange the second session, which happened immediately.

The possessed man prescribed some incense and other things, asked for a first course as I think and went away.

Don Ignazio, almost stunned, with the mirage of a recovery, felt more relieved that first day and therefore the family's faith in the miracle grew even more.

The visits continued, the Messeri family paid and paid; but the evil did not disappear, and indeed poor Giovanni was convinced that his brother's godfather had played some nasty trick on him and had placed the evil spirit in his body.

The three brothers, according to the prosecution, met and went to Geraci's house, they gave him a decent dinner which then ended with the killing.

Messeri Ignazio and the two brothers forced Geraci to use his beneficent spirit with all the reserves of his art to destroy the evil spirit that the sufferer had within him; and when he was cornered, "a fimminella" put under pressure, pretended to declare that he was worthless. Then they thought about revenge, hence the killing.

These and other circumstances have been clarified by the new investigation and the presence of the three in that house on the evening the crime took place has been confirmed.

The arrest

The Councilor responsible for the investigation of the trials, Mr. Cuzzaniti, issued arrest warrants which were sent to the police commissioner yesterday.

He gave them to Commissioner Pastore for execution. The service was entrusted to the delegate of the Flying Squad, Spano, who, with eight cyclists, the Carabinieri sergeant had the homes of the three Messeri brothers guarded.

One, Angelo, lived in the Magnasco courtyard and was a laborer; Ignazio lived in the Petrazzi courtyard, and Giovanni lived in Via Perpignano No. 47.

Last night, the guards and Carabinieri, who had divided the duties and who knew that there were disputes between the brothers for reasons of self-interest, knocked on the three's doors and arrested them. Ignazio and Giovanni are farmers.

Giovanni still believes that he has the evil spirit of Geraci in his body and he still rails against him even though he is dead. He admitted to having been defrauded of large sums by Geraci, who was unable or unwilling to do anything on his behalf. The three were immediately sent to prison while the investigation continues. "It was the evil spirit of Geraci after his death that sent them to prison," they say.

By the way, I did have the three Misseri brothers on my tree; their parents are Cesare Misseri and Francesca Misseri. And yes, Cesare and Francesca are first cousins! From what I have researched, only Ignazio Misseri was married. His wife was Santa Giuseppa Misseri, and Ignazio and Santa were also first cousin. The Italian Catholic Church was pretty strict about first cousins not marrying each other, so I find it very intriguing about how two sets of first cousins could marry in such a small generational family line.

October is Family History Month

I know it's the fall season, when on the 1st of October, I start to feel like it's time to put on a sweatshirt and to put the shorts away for the year.  Starbucks sent out their email this morning saying that their pumpkin spice coffee is back, so that's another sign that fall is upon us. But the biggest thing for me, is that, October is Family History Month. It is when people really start to hunker down to work on family history again after the summer break and with school back in session. I think it's appropriate that October and Family History Month go hand in hand. So go find a nice spot to do some work, maybe, clear off your desk, organize your computer and go do some family history during the month of October. And have fun! 

The Black Hand in America: an in-depth look

The following is an article that ChatGPT created when I wanted to learn more about the "Black Hand" history in the United States. The reason for this research is because I've recently was shared some newspaper articles about a distant cousin who was killed by the "Black Hand." I'll write more later about this individual.

“Black Hand” (Italian: Mano Nera) was not a single centralized mafia organization but a widely feared extortion method used by criminal actors — often immigrants from southern Italy and Sicily — across U.S. cities from roughly the 1890s through the 1920s. It terrorized Italian-American neighborhoods, fed nativist headlines, drew major law-enforcement responses, and helped shape the public image of the “Italian mafia.” Encyclopedia Britannica+1

• What was the “Black Hand”?

“Black Hand” refers primarily to a style of extortion: anonymous, threatening letters demanding money and signed with ominous symbols (a black handprint, dagger, skull, or other menacing drawing) and often explicit threats of arson, kidnapping or murder if the demand wasn’t met. Because the same technique appeared in many cities and victims and notes sometimes used similar imagery, newspapers and some police reports presented the Black Hand as though it were a single, conspiratorial society — an impression that outlasted the phenomenon itself. Wikipedia+1

Key point: the “Black Hand” was a tactic (extortion by terror), not always an organized crime syndicate with a unified leadership. Small cells, lone operators, Camorra crews, and Sicilian Mafia members all sometimes used the same tactic. Wikipedia+1

• Origins and cultural context

Old-world roots: Extortion by threatening letters and symbolic intimidation had precedents in southern Italy (Neapolitan Camorra and Sicilian criminal practices). Immigrants brought not only people but social practices and criminal opportunity structures to crowded American cities. chicagocop.com+1

 U.S. entry points: Black-Hand extortion became visible in dense Italian neighborhoods: New York (especially Little Italy and East Harlem), Chicago’s Near North Side and immigrant wards, New Orleans and other cities with large southern-Italian immigrant populations. The phenomenon peaked in the pre-Prohibition years (approx. 1890s–1920s). Encyclopedia Britannica+1

 Why it spread: Rapid immigration, ethnic enclaves, language barriers, suspicion of authorities, and small-business wealth (shops, money sent back to relatives in Italy) made immigrants both attractive targets and sometimes reluctant witnesses. Sensational newspaper coverage amplified fear and sometimes exaggerated the size of Black-Hand “organizations.” Gang Rule+1

• Methods and signature behavior

Typical elements of Black-Hand extortion letters and campaigns:

• Anonymous delivery of notes demanding money, often with a deadline.
• Menacing imagery — the eponymous “black hand” drawing, daggers, smoke, or blood — meant to convince victims the threats were real.
• Threats of arson of premises, harm to family members, or murder, sometimes accompanied later by violent acts if demands were ignored.
• Use of intermediaries or “collectors” to take payments, and occasional torture or murder to enforce compliance or revenge. Encyclopedia Britannica+1

Law-enforcement agencies of the era found investigation difficult: letters were anonymous; victims were often scared of retaliation or distrustful of police; and investigative techniques (forensics, coordinated federal resources) were less developed than later in the 20th century. Postal inspectors, municipal police “Italian branches,” and later federal agents all played roles in combating the racket. United States Postal Service+1

• Notable figures and cases

Lieutenant Joseph Petrosino (NYPD): Petrosino created an “Italian Squad” in the NYPD to investigate crimes in Italian neighborhoods, focused on extortion, counterfeiting, and Mafia activity. In March 1909 he travelled covertly to Sicily investigating trans-Atlantic criminal links and was assassinated in Palermo — a murder that became a cause célèbre and symbolized the perceived reach of Italian organized crime. Petrosino’s work and death dramatically raised public awareness of the problem. Wikipedia+1

Giuseppe “the Clutch Hand” Morello and allied groups: Early Sicilian crime bosses in New York (e.g., Morello, Ignazio Lupo) operated in neighborhoods where Black-Hand extortion was practiced; the Morello gang and other early families later evolved (or were succeeded by) the New York Mafia families known from later decades. These early bosses were involved in varied crimes, including extortion, loan-sharking, and counterfeiting. Wikipedia+1

High-profile investigations and convictions: A number of local prosecutions, Chicago and New York “Black Hand” squad actions, and federal/secret-service interventions produced convictions in the 1900s–1910s, though historians note that many arrests were local and the degree of centralized control by a single “Black Hand Society” was often overstated. Office of Justice Programs+1

• Law enforcement response and decline

Specialized units: Police departments formed special units (e.g., NYPD’s Italian Squad) to investigate extortion in Italian communities; postal inspectors and later federal agencies also intervened because many threats involved mail or crossed state lines. United States Postal Service+1

Investigative limits: Early policing lacked modern forensic capabilities and faced language/cultural barriers; journalists sometimes sensationalized the problem; the Italian consulate also protested stereotyping and conducted its own inquiries. Gang Rule+1

Why it faded: By the 1920s the specific, high-visibility “letter terror” of the Black Hand waned as criminal activity changed: organized crime consolidated into more structured mafia/camorra organizations, Prohibition created vastly more profitable illicit markets (bootlegging) that shifted criminal focus from small-scale extortion to larger, enterprise-style rackets, and policing/federal coordination improved. In short, Black-Hand tactics were absorbed into—and overshadowed by—modern organized crime. Wikipedia+1

• Myths, media and the “Black Hand” label

The term “Black Hand” became a rhetorical shortcut in newspapers and by some officials: it summed up a public fear of organized crime among Italian immigrants but also encouraged stereotyping and conflation of distinct groups. Scholarly work has stressed that:

• Many acts labelled “Black Hand” were local, opportunistic extortion crimes rather than evidence of a monolithic trans-Atlantic conspiracy.
• The image of a single secret society fit sensational press narratives and reinforced nativist biases of the era. Office of Justice Programs+1

• Legacy

The Black-Hand era helped shape American perceptions of Italian immigrants and provided some of the early templates (threat letters, protection rackets, symbolic intimidation) that later organized crime adapted.

 It also stimulated institutional responses: specialized police squads, more attentive federal involvement (e.g., postal inspectors), and international investigations. The public and law-enforcement reaction to the Black Hand shaped later approaches to organized crime in the U.S. throughout the 20th century. United States Postal Service+1

• Conclusion

The “Black Hand” must be understood as a historically specific set of extortion methods that flourished in the shadow of mass immigration, ethnic enclaves, sensational journalism, and early modern urban policing. While it contributed to the hardening public image of an “Italian mafia” in America, historians emphasize that the phenomenon involved many small operators and groups rather than a single, all-powerful transnational society. Its decline in visibility by the 1920s coincided with the rise of larger, more organized criminal enterprises and changes in policing and social conditions.

---

References and further reading

(Selected primary and scholarly sources consulted)

• Encyclopedia Britannica, “Black Hand” (American criminal extortion). Encyclopedia Britannica

• Wikipedia, “Black Hand (extortion).” (useful overview and references). Wikipedia

• U.S. Postal Inspection Service — history spotlight: “Black Hand Gang.” (description of extortion-by-letter and postal involvement). United States Postal Service

• Pitkin, T.M., Black Hand — A Chapter in Ethnic Crime. (Office of Justice Programs / NCJRS abstract). Office of Justice Programs

• Lombardo, R.M., “The Black Hand: Terror by Letter in Chicago” (article). Office of Justice Programs

• Joseph Petrosino biography and accounts of his 1909 assassination (NYPD Italian Squad; see Petrosino entries and scholarly articles). Wikipedia+1

• Morello family / early New York Mafia histories (Giuseppe Morello; background on gangs that used extortion). Wikipedia+1

• JSTOR and academic articles on Italian immigrant crime and urban policing in early 20th-century America (e.g., Nelli; archival papers). JSTOR+1